as "bravely threw themselves upon the breast of the ocean" and "barren wilderness was seen to blossom like a rose?''

12. Is it necessary, in actual delivery, to give all the parts of a syllogism?

13.

What are the three checks to insure correct deductive

reasoning?

14. What is the value of analogy? Is it chiefly argumentative or literary?

15. How is the dilemma related to the disjunctive and the hypothetical syllogism?

LESSON 15

ARGUMENTATION

1. BRIEFING

The importance of organization and the value of a definitely drawn up plan for any kind of speech has already been brought to the attention of the student. In Lesson 1, the use of a simple yet logical outline as the groundwork of speech delivery was explained. Such outlines, with a small number of divisions and subdivisions, have been referred to again and again during the course and especially in the first six lessons. Now, while we are concentrating upon argumentation, we must go more minutely into the details of the technical brief. In common with the outlines mentioned, such a brief is drawn up only after ample material has been gathered and digested. In our discussion of the form of the brief, therefore, we shall assume that reading and note-taking, or some other means of acquiring information, has gone before.

The simple outlines were merely guides for the speaker to follow during his delivery. The rigorous, argumentative briefs are useful not only in this way, to a certain extent, but they also serve far wider purposes. Such a brief is a storehouse of all the available material of value to establish a certain proposition. Like all good storehouses or filing systems, it must be designed to hold its contents in classified groups. Furthermore, all the opinions to be maintained and to be related in a running

argument, must be recorded in such a manner that (1) the particular strength or weakness of each assertion will be revealed, (2) the existence or non-existence of factsupports will be evident, and (3) the nature and trustworthiness of the sources may be manifest. Consequently, after all his careful research, a speaker, in drawing up his brief, arranges his argumentative material in a manner which will not only store it systematically for reference, but which will also expose and give warning of any weakness which may exist.

But what are the parts of a brief? They are similar in many respects to the parts of the outline of any speech; but those portions which involve care in statement and logical form will be worked out with more than ordinary patience. Obviously, the body of the brief is the main line of argument; but just as the body of any other speech requires a preparatory portion, so also an introduction is necessary here. Besides this, and a conclusion, we shall enumerate the parts of a typical brief.

(a) The Proposition

The proposition is a statement of the opinion which the speaker is about to demonstrate. It should be clearly formulated at the head of the brief and have the following characteristics:

1. It must express a logically real proposition. We mean that it must be capable of proof or disproof if an honest effort to demonstrate it is made. If the proposition, however, be unreal, it is, on its face, not susceptible of demonstration, pro or con. For instance, one who says, "The government ought not to undertake activities outside its proper field of action", is offering an unreal proposition-one which on its face cannot be proved. He practically says, "The government ought not to do what it ought not to do." There is nothing here to argue

about. There is a tautologous or identical, empty shell of assertion. No issue is raised; there is nothing to prove; in one sense, the thing is self-evident. Now if the proposition were, "To conduct the telegraph and telephone business of the country, is a proper governmental activity," we would have a real proposition worthy of investigation, to be settled affirmatively or negatively. A speaker could expound his concept of "proper governmental activity" and then demonstrate that the conducting of the telegraph and telephone business of the country comes within the field. Here a relationship capable of proof or disproof is stated and the proposition is real. Since we sometimes say things which are incapable of demonstration, it is well for one about to argue an opinion to formulate it carefully in a proposition and then to examine that proposition to see if it is real and worthy of argument.

2. The proposition should be clear and unmistakable in meaning.

3. It should not be complicated with numerous issues and modifications. If, on first writing, it seems too intricate, try to make a broad but simple statement which will include all you have in mind.

(b) The Introduction

Like all speeches, the argument usually requires an introduction. For the general purposes of an introduction, see Lessons 3 and 4. It will be noticed that a part to put the audience in a favorable emotional state is important. But in the brief this part is not written down. The speaker adjusts himself to the prevailing atmosphere, extemporaneously; the brief contains only matter related to the intellectual grasp of ideas and their logical relationship. Therefore the legitimate introduction to an argument is designed to educate the hearers so that

they can follow the reasoning processes which logically lead to an acceptance of the main proposition. The most desirable arrangement of this material is as follows:

(a) General survey of the situation or problem.—Here the speaker gives a general idea of the occasion for holding an opinion and trying to demonstrate it to others. It is a sort of comprehensive outline to enable the hearer to get his bearing.

(b) Detailed facts of informational value.-Here is presented knowledge necessary to an understanding of the arguments which are to follow. More facts are usually recorded than will be expressed in actual delivery of the introduction. They are all recorded in this place for convenience and are drawn forth or left alone according to the exigencies of the occasion. Before some audiences, the initial, educational matter may be reduced very much, while other audiences will need not only all that is available, but will need all of it repeated in various terms. Sometimes it is wise not to mention some of the facts here recorded, early in the argument, but to reserve them to be interwoven in the argument proper.

(c) Waived and granted matter is next indicated so as to narrow the field of discussion. By waived matter, we mean matter which is indeed related to the general subject but which we wish to set aside (without influencing any opinion about it one way or the other) in order to limit ourselves to a selected field. For instance, if we were arguing that "Women ought to be allowed to vote for federal officers," we might well waive or set aside considerations of constitutionality. To be sure the women could not be granted such suffrage unless all differences under these considerations were settled, but we wish to reserve that phase of possible disagreement and confine our attention to the practical effects of granting the suffrage whether it is constitutional or not. Waived matter has no influence upon the discussion as limited.