TEST QUESTIONS

These questions are for the student to use in testing his knowledge of the principles in this lesson. They are suggestive merely, dealing largely with the practical application of the principles, and are to be placed in the notebook for future reference.

1. Did you ever hear a speaker use persistently a word which was unfamiliar to you? What effect did it have on you? How could the evil have been remedied?

2. What is meant by "family likeness" when that expression is used in connection with the individuals which go to make up a group?

3. What is your definition of "concept"?

4. Name the three classes of general ideas classified in this lesson. Could you add one or more classes which are not included in those three?

5. In the discussion of "utility," is the definition given first or last? What is the advantage or disadvantage of giving a definition first? of giving it last?

6. What is meant by "specific illustration" as a means of making a general notion clear? What are the necessary features of such an illustration?

7. After reading the exposition of the idea "charity" as given by Paul, formulate your own definition of "charity.'

8. What purpose does contrast serve in making a concept clear?

9. Besides concrete illustration and enumeration of essential characteristics, what other device is of service to make a concept clear?

10. What two things must be cared for in an exposition in order that the concept should be fully expressed?

11. Why has definition been called "exposition boiled down"?

12. What are the essential features of a good, logical definition?

13. What is the value of clear exposition to the maker of general speeches?

14. Sum up the advice concerning the adaptation of exposition to a particular audience.

15. Give half a dozen examples of concepts in each of the three groups.

16. In which group do "chemistry," "eloquence," "submarine," and "utility" belong?

17. Where does the subject-matter of this lesson fall in the general outline or plan of this Public Speaking Course?

LESSON 13

ARGUMENTS AND THEIR PRESENTATION

Thus far we have discussed the presentation of images and concepts so that the audience may be put in possession of them just as they exist in the mind of the speaker. Such expressional efforts are concerned with re-creation -the re-creation of particular mental images or general notions which the speaker has. But there is a possibility. that these images and concepts or combinations of them as held by the speaker may be errors or perversions of the truth. A very interesting book has been written by Professor Münsterberg, of Harvard University, in which he gives many instances of people in court who testified to certain facts and described them clearly, believing them to be true, although later they were shown to be false. In other words, it is one thing to represent an image or idea clearly and quite another to insure its truth. The promoter, selling mining stock, may paint a vivid picture of extensive and successful operations, but he may not be able to demonstrate the actual existence of such a mine anywhere save in his own fertile imagination. Besides particular and general ideas, we also form opinions or judgments which likewise may be clearly presented, but which also will need defense as to truth and acceptability.

If you were to paint a word picture of a wonderful mine and your audience were to accept it as existing just as you describe it, there would be no need for you to take precautions to guarantee the actual existence of the mine. If you were to expound the process of ore extrac

tion used in the mine and it were accepted as a true exposition, there would be no need of demonstration. If you were to express the opinion that such a mine operated in such a manner would be a good enterprise in which to invest and the audience were to understand and adopt the opinion, there would be no practical advantage in showing them just why the opinion is a justifiable one. But often it is necessary not only to present but also to justify and defend. Such an operation we call an argument. Thus far we have discussed the presentation of percepts and concepts; before taking up the details of argumentation, we shall treat the clear presentation of judgments.

1. A JUDGMENT AND ITS STATEMENT

Our experiences throughout life lead us to link things together in various relations. Thus we say, "Apples are sweet," placing apples in a class relation with all other sweet things. We have our ideas of what things are good, bad, or indifferent. We may come to the conclusion that "The tariff is a benefit to the country." This means that we deliberately place the tariff among the things good for our country. Such a conclusion is a judgment. A judgment always includes two or more things and a definite relation between them. It is a belief which we form deliberately; it is an opinion. When stated, such a belief, opinion, or judgment always takes the form of a proposition. The following are typical propositions:

1. Labor unions are beneficial to the community as a whole.

2. A college education is of value as a preparation for business.

3. Private ownership of land is justifiable.

4. Political parties are necessary in a democracy. 5. John Smith is an honest man.

Notice that between things a relationship is stated which may or may not turn out to exist. Sometimes the relationship is stated as one which ought to exist, thus: 1. The United States should grant self-government to the Filipinos.

2. Railroads should be required to publish annual reports of the physical value of their property.

3. The President of the United States should be elected for a term of six years and be ineligible for a second nomination.

In each of these cases, the expresser of the proposition. has one thing clearly in mind (say, labor unions) and another (things beneficial to the community) and he affirms a close relationship. The student might here say that when one forms a concept, he also relates a number of things so as to come to a grasp of their common or class features. That is indeed true, but the total product -the concept or general notion-is built up gradually and almost unconsciously; certainly the thinker is not aware of the steps. Many, many experiences with particular apples of various sizes, shapes, colors, and flavors make us gradually get a notion of what constitutes apples in general. In the case of the judgment, however, the related thoughts are constantly kept in mind, each separate from the other and compared. We select one notion (as tariff) and another (national welfare) and, after carefully inspecting them, we say that they are or are not related thus and so; we form the judgment deliberately and state the result in the form of a proposition.

These propositions may record relationships which do exist, have existed, or will or should exist between two things. If the proposition clearly presents the relationship which the speaker has in mind, then we say that