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From teachers we pass to instruction given. Instruction in schools may be bad, either in consequence of the subject-matter being unsuitable, or else from the teaching itself being either unintelligent or uneven. The Commissioners make no complaint on the first head. The necessary subject-matter of instruction is religious knowledge, reading, writing, spelling, ciphering; to which is added in girls' schools plain sewing. There is nothing here that could be omitted. To this are added in the better schools geography, grammar, English history, and, in some exceptional cases, drawing and music. But these subjects are only taught at the discretion of the managers and schoolmasters, and in very rapidly decreasing proportions, and do not form a necessary condition for the receipt of a Government grant. They give scope both to teachers and to pupils, when the latter are capable of being carried beyond the threshold; but they are not compulsorily taught, and inspectors have very properly refused to examine in them when dissatisfied with the examination in Scripture, reading, writing,

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Indeed, when I have been consulted upon alterations of the time-tables, I have invariably recommended a larger proportion of time for this subject.

4. To parse sentences, and to explain their construction. But the progress in English grammar is not satisfactory, and, though much time is given to the subject, it is not taught with sufficient energy and skill in a large proportion of schools which in other respects are efficiently conducted.

A good elementary work on this subject is still 5. To know the elements of English history. a desideratumn; but the boys are generally acquainted with the most important facts, and show much interest in the subject.

6. In geography the progress is generally satisfactory. In fact, most persons who attend the examinations of good schools are surprised at the amount and the accuracy of the knowledge of physical and political geography, of manners, customs, &c., displayed by intelligent children of both sexes. Well-drawn maps, often executed at leisure hours by the pupils, are commonly exhibited on these occasions.

7. The elements of physical science, the laws of natural philosophy, and the most striking phenomena of natural history, form. subjects of useful and very attractive lectures in many good within the last few years with great advantage schools. These subjects have been introduced to the pupils.

and arithmetic. The Commissioners' commendation of certificated and pupil teachers shows that they cannot believe that lessons are given in a slovenly or unintelligent man- '8. The principles of political economy, with ner. Their complaint is, that children are especial reference to questions which touch on unevenly taught. The lower classes,' they the employment and remuneration of labour, say, are neglected' (p. 154). The junior principles of taxation, uses of capital, &c., effects classes in the schools, comprehending the of strikes on wages, &c., are taught with great clearness and admirable adaptation to the wants great majority of the children, do not learn, and capacities of the children of artisans, in or learn imperfectly, the most necessary part the reading-books generally used in the metroof what they come to learn-reading, writ-politan schools. I have found the boys well ing, and arithmetic' (p. 168). If this damaging charge be true, in the sense in which it is ordinarily accepted, we cannot understand how the Commissioners should have given so much undeserved praise to teachers. We shall presently inquire how far it is true. We now give Mr. Cook's estimate of the attain ments of boys of twelve in a good school. It is quoted by the Commissioners as a true pic

ture:

'A boy, of fair average attainments, at the age of twelve years, in a good school, has learned

acquainted with these lessons in most schools which I have inspected in the course of this year.

9. Drawing is taught with great care and skill in several schools by professors employed under the Department of Science and Art. 'That any addition can be advantageously made to this list I do not believe, considering the age of the children; nor am I of opinion that any of these subjects could be omitted without practical detriment to the schools.'(Minutes, 1854-5, p. 393; Rep. p. 237.)

In Dr. Bell's day, to teach writing and an 'Utopian ciphering universally was 1. To read fluently, and with intelligence, not scheme,' which he repudiated as impossible. merely the school-books, but any work of gene-It is not proposed that the children of the

ral information likely to come in his way.

2. To write very neatly and correctly from dictation and from memory, and to express himself in tolerably correct language. The latter attainment, however, is comparatively rare, and has been one which I have specially and repeatedly

urged upon the attention of school-managers.

3. To work all elementary rules of arithmetic with accuracy and rapidity. The arithmetical instruction in good schools includes decimal and vulgar fractions, duodecimals, interest, &c. Much time and attention are given to this subject, but not more than are absolutely required.

poor be educated in an expensive manner, or all of them be taught to write and cipher.

... It may suffice to teach the generality on an economical plan to read their Bible, and understand, the doctrines of our holy religion.* The method of teaching writing was at this time that of tracing the letters of the alphabet in sand, and this, as well as syllabic spelling, was regarded as a most valuable discovery. Mr. Lancaster improved upon

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Dr. Bell's plan, and rejoiced over a system | the condition of the schools is very benewhich afforded him as a result

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At the same time Mr. Lancaster invented a system of rewards and punishments; a nonsensical system of logs, and shackles, and yokes, and cages, and blankets, and dying speeches, and paper crowns, and boys and girls slapping each other's faces, from which we turn with relief to the almost perfect order, tone, and discipline of the better schools under certificated masters at present. The Inspectors report the discipline to be excellent, good, or fair, in 94 out of every 100 schools receiving annual grants, and in 75 per cent. of other schools visited by them. The Commissioners say,—

ficial' (Ib. p. 102); and 'trained teachers are in every respect but one positively good.' (Ib. p. 168.) This exception is, as we have seen, the now frequently alleged neglect of the junior classes for the higher, of elementary for more ambitious subjects. Supposing remediable, and does not imply a want of this to be general, or even universal, it is ability or of character on the part of the alteration is proposed by the Commissioners. teacher. As to subjects of instruction, no As to tone and discipline, they report that the religious and moral influence of the public schools appears to be very great; to be greater than even their intellectual influence. A set of good schools civilises a whole neighbourhood. The most important function of the school is that which they perform best.' (Ib. p. 273.)

'The moral effect produced by the schools is more important than the instruction given in Nor do the Commissioners confine themthem, although not so appreciable. The standards by which it can be measured are less defi- selves to giving their approbation to the renite. We believe it to be very great, and we sults which have been produced by the existshould be astonished if it were not so. We ing system. They not only pronounce it have seen that the managers of the public'very successful' in respect to schools, trainschools are almost all of them men whom strong religious convictions and feelings have impelled to found and to maintain schools at a considerable, sometimes a very great expenditure of trouble and money. We have seen that the pupil-teachers and masters have generally been selected for their moral as well as their intellectual character, and have received an education more religious than any other that is given in England. Among the higher classes in society the teacher is not socially superior to his pupils; often he is their inferior; often the difference in cultivation and refinement between the school and home is unfavourable to the school. But among the labouring classes the teacher is almost the only educated man with whom they daily come in contact. The school, when compared to the home, is a model of neatness and order. We might assume, therefore, even if we did not know it to be so, that the religious and therefore the moral influence of the public schools over the children must be very great, and we have also much evidence in support of that opinion.'-(Report, i. p. 266.)

If schools are increasing and well supplied with scholars, if teachers are efficient, if the subjects of instruction are suitable, and if discipline and tone are good, there is no doubt that education is in a prosperous state. With respect then to numbers-With these exceptions (the children of out-door paupers and of parents viciously inclined), all the children in the country capable of going to school receive some information.' (b. i. P. 84, see also pp. 88, 293.) Next as to teachers. So late as 1846 the best teachers were ignorant and unskilful.' (b. p. 99.) Now the effect of the presence of pupil-teachers upon

*Improvements in Education,' p. 59.

ing colleges, Government expenditure and local subscriptions, inspection, method (Ib. p. 309), but they proceed further to approve of its principles.No other system has been devised which the nation could be induced to adopt.' (Ib. p. 308.) "The merit and the success of the present system' is that it supports 'the intelligent management and the religious character of schools.' (b.) 'It excites feelings on the part of the managers which have a most beneficial influence on the whole character of popular education,' (Ib. p. 309.) "The existing plan is the only one by which it would be possible to secure the religious character of popular education.' (Ib. p. 310.) 'The controversies which have occurred in the course of the last twenty years, the difficulties which they have thrown in the way of the establishment of any comprehensive system, and their practical result in the establishment of the denominational training colleges and elementary schools, apclusion that the great body of the population pear to us to place beyond all doubt the conare determined that religion and education must be closely connected, and we do not think that any other principle than that which is the base of the present system would secure this result.' (Ib. p. 311.) While we are prepared to suggest means both for its modification and extension, we believe that the leading principles of the present system are sound, that they have shown themselves well adapted to the feelings of the country, and that they ought to be maintained.' (Ib. p. 312.)

Had the Commissioners stopped here, there would be no doubt of the character of

their verdict. They might have recommended a patient adherence to a system which had already wrought so much, adding a few suggestions with regard to details, and a general warning against over-ambitiousness in the training of masters and the teaching of children. But they proceed to recommend, and we find ourselves at once in a new . country. An entire dissimilarity of sentiments is found in different parts of the Report-so that disputants on each side shelter themselves under the authority of the Commissioners. No doubt the personnel of the Commission made either compromise or discrepancy on many points necessary. What agreement could there have been when two clergymen of the Established Church sat side by side with a gentleman who declares 'the Establishment' to be a life-destroying upas,' and pronounces 'the sacred mission of Protestant Dissenting ministers' to be to shatter this image (the Established Church), and give the dust of it to the four winds of heaven'?*

*Nonconformist Sketch-book,' pp. 16 and 29. May we consider Mr. Miall to have abandoned

some of his previously entertained views, or does

he still hold them after his late researohes? Some

years ago he published his opinion to the following effect The clergy are men who, of necessity, are inimical to all reform; abettors of every abuse; united, organised, and therefore formidable opponents of every progressive improvement.' (Nonconformist Sketch-book,' p. 72.) The education of the people owes nothing to them. (Ib. p. 75.) In what page of our national records are we to look for the disinterestedness, the liberality, or the gentleness of the clergy? When do we find them struggling with the people for freedom and independence, or displaying that magnanimity which would prefer their country's welfare to the preservation of their own paltry emoluments? We boldly answer NEVER!' (Ib. p. 74.) 'Fifteen thousand clergy dependent on the one hand and powerful on the other-to the aristocracy pledged servants, to their own flocks supreme dictators stationed at convenient intervals over the length and breadth of the land, and thus coming into contact with society at all points. Could mechanism more fatal to religion, or more serviceable to the interests of the upper classes, be framed and put together?' (Ib. p. 69.) But as Commissioner, by perverse fate and the vote of the majority, or, we may charitably hope, by conviction, he was compelled to put his name to the following statement of facts-'In rural districts . . . the burden of supporting the schools falls principally on the parochial clergy, who are very ill able to support it. . . The heaviness of the burden borne by the clergy is imperfectly indicated even by such figures as these. It frequently happens that the clergyman considers himself responsible for whatever is necessary to make the accounts of the school balance, and thus he places himself towards the school in the position of a banker who allows a customer habitually to overdraw his account.

....

1 A calculation of Mr. Hedley, from which it appears that, in support of eighteen schools, 256 were annually paid by landowners and occupiers, and 4717. by the clergy.

In a

The Commissioners acknowledge 'differences' amongst themselves. It must not be inferred that this (the voluntary system) is the only matter on which we differ. subject involving so many statements, so many inferences, so many general principles, and so many executive details, universal concurrence was not to be expected, and has not, in fact, been obtained.' (Rep. i. p. 299.) As if to make this quite certain, Mr. Senior, one of their number, has put out a volume of counterproposals. But, making allowance for all this, we were quite at a loss for an adequate hypothesis on which to reconcile the facts which the Commissioners state with the conclusions which they draw from them, and the recommendations which they consequently promulgate, until we discovered from whence the plan which they propose really emanated. Its outline was, we thought, not unfamiliar to us; and, on turning to the Encyclopædia Britannica,' we found in its pages the scheme which the Commissioners have presented to Her Majesty as their own. It is not indeed in the same words, and there are a few modifications of detail; but essentially it is the same. Surely this is the oddest expedient. that Royal Commissioners were ever driven to. Happily, as we have said, the valuable part of the Report, and what the country needed, is the information which it contains with regard to the present state of education. Otherwise the House of Commons might have well grudged the expense of the six thick volumes. The Encyclopædia Britannica' is a dear book, but it does not cost so much as the thousands spent on the Report; and it contains valuable and interesting articles on other subjects besides National Education.'

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schemes of the Encyclopædia Britannica' To show the great similarity between the and of the Commissioners, we will place them in parallel columns :—

He is the man who most feels the mischief arising from want of education. Between him and the ignorant part of his adult parishioners there is a chasm. They will not come near him, and do not understand him if he forces himself upon them. He feels that the only means of improvement is the education of the young; and he knows that only a small part of the necessary expense can be extracted from the parents. He begs from his neighbours, he begs from the landowners; if he fails to persuade them to take their fair share of the burden, he begs from his friends, and even from strangers; and at last submits most meritoriously, and most generously, to bear not only his own proportion of the expense, but also that which ought to be borne by others. .... These observations apply chiefly to schools connected with the Church of England, to which denomination almost all the schools in rural districts belong.' (Rep., vol. i. p. 78.)

Scheme of the Encyclopædia Britannica.'

1. Educational districts must be formed. (Vol. xv. p. 826.)

2. An investigation must be made by Governmental authorities as to the educational wants of the district. (Ib.)

3. Existing charitable endowments must be applied. (b.)

4. A school-rate must be levied on actual property in the district. (Ib.)

5. A committee of management must be appointed by the rate-payers in each educational district to make payments to schools which fulfil certain conditions, according to the number of children in average attendance; and to erect new schools. (Ib.)

6. This payment out of the rates should take the place of grants now made to teachers, pupil teachers, and managers, and also of voluntary subscriptions. (Ib.)

7. Inspectors should have power of allowing or withdrawing grants to schools. (Ib.)

8. Local management should not be interfered with. (Ib.)

9. A conscience-clause should be required; religious instruction being given, as in the Irish schools, at a specified time, and parents having power to withdraw any child from it. (Ib.)

10. There should be no report by the inspector on religious knowledge. (Ib.)

It really appears to us that all that the Commissioners can call their own is an attempt to dovetail together the plan of the 'Encyclopædia Britannica' and the existing system of the Committee of Council. But the attempt to combine the information of the Encyclopædia' with the Blue Books has not been successful. It has resulted in many inconsistencies.* But there is no inconsistency in the writer in the Encyclopædia.' He utterly dislikes and repudiates the existing system. He thinks that the people should be educated through the people' (p. 815). He would 'contemplate the wants of the people, not through the peculiarities of any particular religious system, but by the light of reason and common sense as expressed by the spirit of the times' (Ibid.). He applauds 'the ease' with which the religious question is settled in Prussia, where, if there is a sufficiently large school, two masters are appointed belonging to different religions persuasions, and in small schools a conscience

* See Remarks on some portions of the Report of the Royal Commissioners.'

Scheme of the Commissioners.

1. Each county and each borough of 40,000 inhabitants is to be an educational district. (Rep. i. pp. 330, 545:)

2. An investigation must be made by a special Government inspector as to the educational wants of the district,' says Mr. Senior (Suggestions, p. 58). This proposal was rejected by the majority of Mr. Senior's colleagues, probably as not needing to be specified.

3. Existing charitable endowments must be applied. (Ib., p. 547.)

4. A school-rate must be levied on the rateable property of the county or borough. (lb., pp. 345, 544.)

5. In each county or borough a Board of Education shall be appointed to make payments to schools which fulfil certain conditions, according to the number of children in average attendance after they have passed an elementary examination. (Ib., pp. 328, 544.)

6. This payment out of the rates, together with an additional grant of 2s. 6d. per child from the State, is to take the place of grants made to teachers, pupil-teachers, and managers. (Ib., pp. 328, 544.) It will not, we hope, supersede parish subscriptions.' (Ib., p. 343.)

7. Inspectors are to have power of increasing or diminishing grants to schools. (Ib., pp. 329, 547.)

8. Local management is not to be interfered with. (Ib., p. 340.)

9. A conscience-clause is not indefensible on the grounds of justice, and it may become the duty of the Committee of Council to enforce it. (Ib., p. 344.)

10. In the opinion of the majority there should be no report by the inspector on religious knowledge. (Ib., p. 348.)

clause is allowed. He acknowledges, however, with great naïveté, that whether this formal and governmental religious teaching has had much real effect in cherishing the religious faith of the people is much to be doubted, if we may judge by the results; but no one can doubt the vast effect of the system as a whole in encouraging learning and raising up an immense body of highly-educated men' (p. 817). He thinks that the ‘Irish school plan comes far nearer to the idea of a real system of national education,' for no other reason than that a plan of operation has been laid down which compels the schools aided by Government to be open to all without distinction of religious creeds, and which confines the religious instruction to specific periods' (p. 325). He acknowledges that the stimulus given by the Government system of aid and inspection has been almost incalculable, and that the improvement in elementary schools is within the last ten years unprecedented. And yet,' he proceeds, with all this, the step which the Government has taken, when viewed in relation to a future complete system of national education, has

This is plain dealing and intelligible. We are heartily glad to have found the author of the Commissioners' scheme, because from him we learn what are the effects which are expected and hoped to be produced by it. Those who take up the suggestions of others at second-hand often do not see their full bearing, especially when they have been accepted as a compromise, and they of course fail to give their readers a clear notion of the results which are likely to ensue. In considering then the changes proposed by the Commissioners, we must recollect that the object with which they were originally proposed was to substitute the light of reason and common sense' and 'the spirit of the times,' for any particular religious system' (p. 815), to encourage learning,' in place of cherishing the religious faith of the people' (p. 817), to dispossess the present functionaries, both ecclesiastical and municipal, of the idea that they have some special claim to precedence,' 'such claim being fatal to any really national system' (p. 826), and to upset the existing system altogether, chiefly on the grounds of its 'secta

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been obviously a step in the wrong direction. | but to 1,100,0007. ;* but it is a false assumpNo truly national system can by any possi- tion. There will be always schools supported bility grow out of the present Minutes of by individuals or bodies who will not choose Council unless they are greatly modified in to take a share of the public grant, and there their whole structure and tendency' (p. 826), are many schools which must be excluded by chiefly because they are far too sectarian' in their size and numbers. These deductions their tendency, and encourage denomina- will further reduce the sum of 1,100,000l. to tionalism (p. 824). 1,000,000l. Next, it is assumed that the scholars in all private schools must be provided for. This is on the hypothesis either that private schools will be aided, or that they will be swallowed up by the public schools. The first of these courses is proposed by the Commissioners, but it cannot take place under the present Minutes; the second is wholly inconceivable. All the feelings by which private schools are supported are as likely to exist ten years hence as now. The 320,000l.,.therefore, which are allowed on this head must be struck off. Thirdly, 20 per cent. is too large an increase to contemplate in consequence of an improved attendance; for the present number of scholars belonging to the poorer classes is (we use the Commissioners' figures) 2,213,694. Twenty per cent. added to this would raise the sum to 2,656,432. Add to these the 321,768 scholars who are estimated to belong to the higher classes, and we have a total of 2,973,200. But the whole number whose names ought to be on the books in order that all might receive some education is' only 2,655,767' (p. 293). Therefore an increase of 10 per cent. is all that should have been calculated on. Thus the estimated 180,000l. must be reduced by one half, i.e., 90,000l.; but still this reduction would not be sufficient: the estimate is palpably too high, for if 2,213,694 children cost only 663,4357., it is plain that 221,369 additional children would not increase the sum by more than 66,3431. Lastly, the capitation grant is not estimated on the right numbers or at the right price. The Commissioners fix on 800,000 as the numbers likely to obtain the capitation grant, as being roughly one-third of the 2,300,000 children who are to be at school (p. 314). But these 2,300,000 include the boys and girls who will be at private schools where no capitation is paid. Subtract the 573,436 children attending private schools (p. 295), and the third of the remaining 1,726,564, instead of 800,000, is 575,521. Nor would the sum paid to this diminished third be 68. per child, for to all girls and to all boys taught by mistresses (that is, to about two

rianism.'

There are four defects which the Commissioners have pointed out, as justifying and necessitating a change of system, and which Mr. Lowe relies upon as the vindication of a revised code.

The first is a tendency to indefinite expense. (Rep. i. p. 543.) This is a vague charge. The Commissioners' estimate is that it would ultimately amount to 2,000,000l. It is thus formed: Supposing all the public schools, National, British, and Dissenting, were to be supplied with certificated teachers and pupilteachers, the whole expense would amount, they say, to 1,300,000l. Add to these the private schools, and the sum would amount to 1,620,000l. Add. to these an anticipated increase of scholars by 20 per cent., in consequence of an improved attendance, and it amounts to 1,800,000l. Add to this a capitation of 6s. on 800,000 children, and it amounts to 'nearly 2,100,000l. a year.'

Here it is assumed that for the development of the present system it is necessary that all public schools now unassisted should be brought under it. Supposing this true, expenses would not amount to 1,300,000l.,

the

*This is a simple proportion sum. If 663,4351. is sufficient for 917,255 scholars, 1,549,312 children whose names are on the books of elementary dayand expense do not progress in equal ratios, we schools would cost 1,120,6887.; but as numbers may put it down at most as 1,100,000.

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