their being caused to slide over the rails without revolving, in order to bring a train to a stand) to a great extent unnecessary. Those breaks save much time in pulling up a train to stop at intermediate stations; and they form of themselves an admirable means of enabling the guard to attract the attention of the driver, in the event of anything happening to render it necessary for him to do so. A driver will constantly fail to notice the application of a single break, but he will always feel the simultaneous action of breaks upon three or four carriages.

The system of continuous breaks has not yet been extensively applied. The carriages of several different companies are constantly combined in one train on the through lines; and they are not as yet fitted up to correspond with one another. It is the same with systems of breaks, and train communication, as with station arrangements, and signals, and junction arrangements. What an officer of one company considers good, is believed by an officer of the next company to be dangerous and undesirable. In the mean time, the trains are habitually run with out the observance of easy precautions which would tend in an important degree to increase the safety of the passengers.

The travelling public can only wonder at, and regret, the way in which they are helplessly dragged along in a disabled carriage; or the extent to which the carriages over-ride each other, and are smashed to pieces when a train is somewhat suddenly brought up. They are forced to learn with what contentment they may, that a driver could not bring his train to a stand without a serious collision after having had notice for half a mile, three-quarters of a mile, or more, of an obstruction ahead of him. The coroner charges his jury to the effect that they must not expect this particular company to adopt further precautions than those which are in general use. The same opinion is reiterated from the bench when a case comes on for compensation, with the addition, perhaps, that the question of such extra precautions, however desirable they may be, is not one with which the Court ean deal; and that, if the gentlemen of the jury are of opinion that the company have used such reasonable care and attention in providing for the safety of the passengers as under these circumstances night fairly be expected from them, then they must record their verdict for the defendants; and the questions involved in cases of this sort not being properly understood, the system is continued as before.

After the accident first referred to under this head, for which upwards of 20,000l. was paid in compensation, for deaths, injuries,

and damages, the general manager of the railway to which the train belonged, issued instructions that one break to every seven vehicles should be employed with excursion trains for the future; but this was so little attended to, that somewhat later another inquiry brought the circumstance to light, of an excursion-train having been taken over gradients of 1 in 93 and 1 in 100, with only two breaks to thirty-two carriages. About the same time another case is recorded, in which seventeen people were injured, of an excursion train in Gloucestershire conveying a thousand passengers in twenty-seven carriages with only two breaks. These were quite insufficient to check its speed in descending an incline, containing gradients of 1 in 50 and 1 in 70, which it met with in the course of its journey. guard placed spraggs,' or logs of timber, between the spokes of two of the carriagewheels to assist the breaks; but the driver could not, with these additions to his breakpower, do more than slightly reduce a comparatively slow speed in a distance of 900 yards; and the train could not, for this reason, be stopped in time to avoid a collision with a coal-train, which was an hour and seven minutes before its time, at a junction where the excursion-train was not expected. Goods-trains, also, are frequently very insufficiently provided in this respect.

The

We are averse to legislation on railway matters if it can be avoided, and particularly in regard to the details of railway management; but we believe, nevertheless, that much benefit would result to the railway companies as well as to the public, if a certain minimum proportion of break-power were required by law to be employed with all passenger-trains, at the rate, say, of one break vehicle to every three carriages; and if it were rendered imperative upon railway companies to attach a break-vehicle with a guard in it at the tail of every passengertrain, under a penalty for non-compliance made easily recoverable by any person who chose to sue for it.

The next defect to which we would refer, is the want of means for preserving a safe interval between the trains, coupled with a want of information as to their actual position, and with unpunctuality. As the traffic upon all railways is of a mixed character, and as goods-trains, mineral-trains, and cattle-trains cannot be made to keep time absolutely, any more than passenger-trains, it is evident that there must exist a certain amount of unpunctuality. If a line be not so worked as to provide for the safe running of unpunctual as well as of punctual trains, continual danger will be incurred.

When delays do occur, it is important that they should be made known by telegraph; and, indeed, the times at which the trains may be expected, or those at which they start from or pass the principal stations, should be regularly announced at the different stations, junctions, and sidings,' on all lines traversed at high speeds, and by mixed traffic. On some railways this is done; but in the majority of cases it is either omitted altogether, or not done to good purpose. A goods-train, or a slow train, or a shuntingtrain, is therefore kept waiting perhaps for half-an-hour, or until it can wait no longer, in anticipation of the arrival of an express passenger-train. It then blocks the main line by shunting over it, or crossing it, or starting along it, just as the expected train comes up and runs into it. If the signalman is made aware by telegraph of the time when such an express train may be expected he is able to judge how far it is desirable to send a slow train forward, or how it may best be kept out of the way; and he need not expose it to any risk. For the want of this knowledge he may, in his uncertainty, waste time and cause danger at the same moment. This is the way in which many collisions occur, and the simple mode by which they may be avoided. Not only should a statement of the time of departure from each stopping-place be telegraphed down the line, to show how late the trains are, if they are behind time, and when they may be expect ed in all cases; but this information should also be properly exhibited at the stations. On one line of railway a slate is affixed to a wall at each station expressly for this purpose; and the necessary information being constantly inscribed upon it, is always at the service of any one to whom it may be of use. On another line a still further improvement has been for some years in force-of giving notice even to the gate-keepers at the levelcrossings of the approach of a train; and this system might be extended with great benefit. The trains are telegraphed on special wires from station to station; the voltaic current rings a telegraph-bell in each intermediate crossing-lodge on its way; and it thus announces to the inmate, that a train is at a greater or less distance from him, according to his situation with reference to the telegraph station from which the signal is given. No collisions between following trains

As it is stated in some of the books of printed regulations, the danger-signal is to be kept up for five minutes, and the caution-signal for five minutes longer, after the passage of a train. This rule is frequently not carried out in practice, even in places where it is supposed to remain in force; and it often proves ineffectual when it is acted upon. Indeed, much longer intervals of time between the trains are insufficient in many cases to prevent them from coming into collision with one another; and on some occasions they have been so started that one has been due to overtake another, and that collisions have in this way resulted, when longer intervals have been observed. The rates of speed are so different, varying from sixty miles an hour with fast trains, to eight or ten miles an hour, or even less, with slow trains, that very long intervals of time are sometimes required to enable one train to keep out of the way of another, according to the distance that they have to run without a stoppage. At night, too, there are fewer signalmen on duty, and there is less security in that respect than by day. Fogs occur, also; mineral trains are too heavy for their engines; rails are slippery; the view is obstructed on particular parts of the line; and one train breaks down, or travels slowly for some distance, until, at an unlucky moment, it is caught up and run into by a train which is following at full speed and in fancied security.

It was soon found out that some better means than an interval of time was required in tunnels, where, from the accumulation of steam and smoke, an engine-driver was never certain of seeing ten yards before him; and accordingly, a signalman was placed at each end of the longest and most dangerous tunnels, with a telegraph, to prevent more than one train from being in them upon the same line of rails at one time. As the traffic increased, as the stoppages diminished or became less regular, and as the speeds became higher and more various, it was found necessary to provide protection in a similar manner for open portions of railway; and the

system of working by telegraph, as it is called, though it still requires great extension, has thus been introduced with more or less modification, on some of the worst parts of most of the great lines. Many accidents have occurred in spite of it, from mistakes and misunderstandings between the signalmen, either in consequence of the defects under which it has been worked, or from the inefficiency of the servants who have been placed in charge of the telegraph-instruments, or else from their having been employed upon other duties incompatible with proper attention to their instruments; but when a good system of telegraph-working is adopted, and when responsible servants are employed, it is capable of affording a very high degree of security, and of materially assisting at the same time in the working of the traffic.

The traffic upon some of the great lines is now, however, so crowded at particular times, that the trains cannot, it is alleged, be kept even two miles (which, at sixty miles an hour, is two minutes) apart. The telegraphic lengths into which they have been divided are, therefore, under certain restrictions as to warning or speed, made to accommodate more than one train at a time on the same line of rails; and the telegraph-huts, which have been established at distances of about two miles from each other, are thus only available for obtaining a doubtful security. It is impossible to do otherwise than dread some serious accident from such a state of things, whilst it is plain that the system observed on other lines, under which one train only is permitted to be upon each length at a time, and an interval of space is absolutely maintained between every two trains, provides the best chance of safety.

As the result of the most recent experience in working the trains by telegraph, it appears that the telegraph-huts should be fitted up as follows:-One train-needle should be exclusively devoted to each line of rails in each direction, and one talking-needle should also be supplied for the use of the signalman in each direction. Two double and two single-needle instruments are therefore required in each intermediate telegraph-hut, for working a double line of rails. The trainneedles should indicate line-blocked' or "line-clear' only, and should always be pegged over to one of those indications. The talking-needles should be of the ordinary description, and should be employed for all necessary messages, as well as for giving notice of the approach of trains, for describing them, for reporting anything that may be observed to be wrong in them, and for performing other duties required by local circumstances. The instruments should respectively be placed

opposite to the directions in which they work, in huts of ample dimensions, and convenient for the men. Clocks should be provided for their use, and record-books, in which they should enter the time at which each train is signalled to them and from them. It is better that tunnels should be included in telegraph lengths of this description, than that they should be protected by signalmen at each end of them.

Collisions at the junctions of two or more lines of rails are caused, either by a mistake of the signalman in charge of them, or by the disobedience of the driver of an engine or train to the signals which are exhibited to him, or by a want of sufficient signals, or of good arrangements for working the signals and points.

The best junctions are now fitted up with raised stages for the accommodation of the signalmen, on which all the signal-levers and point-handles are collected together, and from which they can be conveniently worked. Each signalman has a main-signal at his box, and a distant-signal (worked by a wire) from 600 to 900 yards away from it, applicable to each line of rails under his control. He keeps his signals, on most lines, at danger,' and only lowers them as may be necessary for the passage of a train. An admirable improvement has been introduced of late, of so connecting the points and signals with each other, that the points may be moved freely in either direction as long as the signals are kept at 'danger;' that the points are fixed in their proper positions when a signal is lowered to allow a train to pass; and that the signals cannot be so lowered until the points have been first turned in the right direction. A signalman is thus prevented from making any mistake which can lead to an accident; and as the signals are weighted to fly to danger' in the event of any failure of the machinery for working them, the only risk to be apprehended is from the drivers not obeying the signals made to them, from their miscalculating the distance in which they can stop their trains, or from their not being provided with sufficient break-power.

On one of the great lines on which junctions are very numerous, the inferior system has been adopted of having one semaphorepost only, with two arms on it, at each junction-box; and of keeping the distant-signals applicable to the main line at all right,' instead of at 'danger.' This system has led to some accidents. The more rational and common practice is to employ as many junctionsignals as there are lines of way, to prevent the engine-drivers from being misled, or from mistaking the signals made to them. For this purpose each junction-box is generally provided with two semaphore-posts, each of

also similar in colour, of which the staff forms the key, or which is opened by a key attached to the staff. During the operation of ballasting, or when an accident happens, the staff is still supreme. It must be sent for an assisting engine, or must accompany the ballast engine; and no officer or person in authority can send forward an engine or train during its absence; but the most hurried director or the most impatient manager must, as well as the third-class passenger, await its return.

A code of regulations embodying the above provisions is now circulated by the Board of Trade, and recommended for adoption; and these provisions are more or less in force upon all single lines on which the staff system is employed.

The third system is that in which the duty of the train-staff is performed by a train-porter, constantly travelling backwards and forwards. Such an officer may be wanted, and there seems to be no reason why he should not be employed, even when the staff system is in force. But the trainstaff has certainly these advantages over the train-porter-that it is never sick or sorry, that it never exceeds the bounds of sobriety, that it is unable to make a mistake, that it can neither be misunderstood nor nmisunderstand any one, that having nothing to fear and nothing to hope for it is no respecter of persons, that its instructions cannot be questioned, that by its presence or absence at any particular point it will always speak for it self, and that it can have no secrets and tell no lies.

The officers of the Board of Trade have of late years, before recommending the opening of a portion of single line for passenger traffic, demanded that a certificate should be furnished on behalf of the company wishing to open it, to the effect that one of the three modes above referred to would be adopted in working it. These undertakings have not always been carried out in practice, because the officers superintending the working of the lines have not in some cases felt them selves bound by the spirit of the certificates so given by others. But there is no doubt that the requiring of such certificates has very much contributed in a general way to the safety of the public.

Next after collisions, the class of accidents that is most numerous and of the greatest importance is that which arises from engines or carriages leaving the rails. These accidents are occasioned, sometimes by defects in the rolling stock, such as the failure of axles, wheel-tyres, springs, or other parts of the machinery of a train; and sometimes by defects in the permanent way, which in

cludes the rails, chairs, fastenings, sleepers, and ballast. An opportunity occasionally offers of attributing such accidents to high speed when the real cause has not been found out; but high speed alone can never be considered as the principal cause of an accident, except in the case of a curve, of which the radius is so small as to render the speed employed dangerous, or on which the super-elevation of the outer above the inner rail is not sufficient to prevent the flange of an engine or carriage-wheel from mounting the former.

In writing thus we do not mean to justify excessive speeds, or to imply that the danger of railway travelling is not materially greater when the speed is increased beyond a certain point, which varies with the nature of the line, the condition of its rolling-stock, and the strength and state of repair of its permanent way. On the contrary, we conceive that the principal companies have been both foolish and rash in allowing their trains to run at the speeds which have now for some years been at all times and seasons habitually employed, and especially so in permitting their engine-drivers to make up time on the road. They have been foolish because high speeds are exceedingly expensive, in requiring superior arrangements for conducting the traffic, in causing interruptions or extra speed to the slow traffic, in the wear and tear of stock and road, in compensation to persons killed and injured, and in preventing the development of local traffic. They have been rash because, other things being equal, greater risk, both of collisions and of trains leaving the rails, is incurred at high speeds than at low speeds, and because, when an accident does occur, a high speed is liable materially to increase the damage to the stock and the injuries to the passengers, which result from it.

In these respects we agree with much that is stated in a pamphlet against high speeds which has been circulated by Mr. G. R. Stephenson, C.E., under the form of a letter to the President of the Board of Trade, and which we commend to our readers. We are unable to endorse all his conclusions, especially as regards break-power and the reversing of engines, which are contrary to the teaching of practical experience; but we would add a few figures in corroboration of his views, because we conceive them to afford a somewhat strong illustration of the danger, and expense in compensation alone, of fast traffic. Out of a total sum of 181,2701., which was officially returned by the different companies as having been paid in the year 1860 as compensation for accidents and losses, 22,5047. is stated to have

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